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PHA and PMA/Iono act on cells in a quite different manner.PHA (Phytohaemaglutinin) is a lectin, binds to the sugars on glycosylated surface proteins, including the TCR, and thereby crosslinks them. So with PHA you get TCR crosslinking and signal 1 (a...

For biochemistry, a “polymorphism” is one of multiple alternative forms within a protein or nucleic acid sequence. For genetics, a polymorphism refers to genetic variants within the population that allow evolution by natural selection. A “mutati...

Scientists seized the evidence of intestinal bacteria "doing evil" in another Science paper published on the same day!Science（DOI: 10.1126/science.aar7201）In recent years, more and more research shows that the intestinal bacteria living in ...

A few days ago, an article published in the journal Science revealed that the estimated extent of gene life expectancy accounts for only 16%. This means that the impact of the environment on life expectancy is higher than our expectations. Now, Natur...

The term "homology" pertains to comparative studies. Homology indicates an ancient common origin and temporal evolution and refers to structural characteristics. In comparative anatomy, it is used to compare structures in different animal ...

Bacteria contamination will release LPS in media. LPS, which is a bacterial toxin will strongly change the cellular metabolism that will lead to a false cell response in you experimental model. So, the best option is to discard the cell.You need to c...

In vitro (Latin: in glass) studies in experimental biology are those that are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings in order to permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis th...

Promoter sequences are usually the sequence immediately upstream the transcription start site (TSS) or first exon. If we know the TSS of a gene, we will know with confidence where the promoter is even without experimental characterization. For many o...

IF you calculate∆Ct = Ct[Housekeeping]-Ct[Target] ... and ∆∆Ct = (∆Exp.)-(∆Control)THEN∆∆Ct is a log-fold-change.IF you calculate∆Ct = Ct[Target]-Ct[Housekeeping] ... and ∆∆Ct = (∆Exp.)-(∆Control)THEN-∆∆Ct is a log-fold-change(logs to the base 2).IF ...

Measuring optical density (OD) using a spectrophotometer is often problematic if the physics behind the method is not understood. For example, the relationship is between biomass concentration and OD, not cell number and OD. This is because larger ce...